Cognitive Psychology (Fach) / Chapter 8 (Lektion)

Thinking

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• What is modus ponens? "The way that affirms by affirming" If P, then Q.P.Therefore, Q
• What is modus tollens? "The way that denies by denying" If P, then Q.Not Q.Therefore not P.
• Is thinking always controlled? No, not necessarily. There is also daydreaming, wishing and imaging which feels often uncontrolled.
• Some areas that are discribes as thinking are not goal directed or under personal control, does the chapter concentrate on these kind of thinking? No.
• On what kind of thinking does the chapter concentrate on ? On problem solving and reasoning, meaning on thinking that is goal directed and under our own control.  ( Remember GOAL + CONTROL)
• The early studies of thinking used what technique for their study? Classical introspective report.
• There was another controversy in the early studies? It was about images people see while thinking. Did all people see images? No and thats the controversy. Some report imageless thought and others say their thinking is always accompanied by faint images.
• ! Where in the past we were interested in the process of thinking, what are we concerned with now? The products of thinking.
• Which group of psychologists did Thorndike belong to? Behaviorist.
• What did the behaviorists say about "thinking"! The behaviorists concentrated on observable outcomes. They replaced "thinking" by "learning" !
• According to Thordike how do people find a solution? Through trial and error. Responses to a problem are simply random responses until one of them proves successful.
• Eselsbrücke: Thordike- Behaviorist- Trial and Error- Experiment Katze Thordike sitzt mit der Katze im Käfig und versucht durch Trial and error rauszukommen! ( Thorndike and Trial both start with T)  
• Trial and Error ( suggested by the behaviorists) is only one method to come to a solution. Who suggested other alternative ways? The Gestalt psychologists.
• Which two main approches fall in the chapter under the heading "Early research on problem- solving"? Behaviorist and Gestalt Psychologist.
• The early approach of the behaviorists sayed what about thinking processes? Thinking is rather "learning" through trial and error.
• Who studied the problem solving behavior of chimpanzies, behaviorists or Gestalt Psychologists? Gestalt Psychologists.
• The term "insight" belongs to which approach of problem solving? Gestalt psychologists.
• What is another word for insight? Productive thinking
• What did the Gestalt Psychologists say about some problem solving problems ? Hint: Insight The process of some problem solving requires the reorganisation or restructuring of the elements of the problem situation in such a way as to provide a solution. This is known as productive thnking or insight.
• What is the "Maier's problem"? The two string problem where people have to find out that they can use the plies to make a pendulum in combination with the strings.
• If a person does not reach "insight" in the Gestalt approach. What is the problem? Hint: It means that people still see the objects as the objects that they are, rather than finding out that they can also be used as something else. Functional fixedness
• To which approach counts the "Aha Erlebnis"? Gestalt approach.
• What is another word for "Aha- Erlebnis" ? Insight.
• What is refered to as "set" ? Its another method that can hinder problem solving. It means that previous learned methods are used. / Rote (auswendig gelernt) application of learned rules.
• What is the difference between productive and reproductive thinking? Productive thinking is good, it leads to insight to a certain problem. Reproductive thinking can be either good or hindering. It means the rote application of past solution to a problem. It the answer is still correct than thats an advantage. If that answer is appropriate than its a very time saving approach. However, sometimes it can be a "block" to problem solving.
• The "nine-dot problem" is a problem of which approach? The Gestalt approach.
• Is the "set effect" present in the "nine dot problem" ? not really. But in some other problem. Whichone is that ? 
• Did the early research ( Gestalt Psychologists) account for the underlying processes of productive thinking? Noooooooooooooo
• Did the early research explain the processes underlying insight? No.
• What is a solution to the early research and their fail to explain underlying processes to insight? The information processing framework.
• What does GPS stand for? General problem solver
• What is the information processing view of problem solving? Newell and Simon said that most simple problems have a number of possible solutions. Each solution can be broken down into a series of discrete steps or stages.
• What are the two key words in the Gestalt approach to problem solving? insight and functional fixedness.
• When participants are asked to solve a problem and say out loud how they did it ? What is that called? Protocol analysis.
• What are the four steps or stages to problem solving according to the information processing approach to problem solving? 1) Representing the problem 2) Selection of operators 3) Implementation of the operators 4) Evaluation of the current state
• In the information processing approach to problem solving to which stage does "problem space" belong to? The first stage " Representing the problem"
• What does "problem space" mean in the information processing approach of problem solving? Problem space belongs to the first stage of the information processing approach of problem solving. "Problem space" means how we represent the problem. The problem space is constructed by considering the initial stage and the goal state, the instructions and the constraints and the relevant information from long term memory.
• What are "operators" in the information processing approach of problem solving? Operators are the actions that can be taken to reach the goal state.
• What is the definition of "problem space" in the book? A term introduced by Newell and Simon to describe the first stage in problem solving; represented in the problem space are the inition state, goal state, the instructions, the constraints in the problem and all relevant information retrieved from long term memory.
• According to Newell and Simon most problems are solved by the use of a small number of general purpose heuristics. What are heuristics? A loosely defined rule of thumb for helping symbolic systems search for solutions to a task.
• Do heuristics always lead to problem solutions? No.
• What is algorithm? In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm is an effective method expressed as a finite list of well-defined instructionsfor calculating a function. Algorithms are used for calculation, data processing, and automated reasoning.
• In contrast to heuristics what does always lead to an solution? Algorithm.
• What does "problem reduction" mean in terms of problem solving? It's an approach to problem solving that converts the problem into a number of sub problems, each of which can be solved separately.
• How can you develop such sub problems? Through "means-ends analysis".
• What is found in problem reduction? Several subgoals of the problem.
• What is one method or heuristic for developing sub problem structures? Means end analysis
• How do people find subgoals through means end analysis? The difference between the current state and the goal state is found. People then work backwards from the goal to find substates.
• Is the means end analysis a heuristic? Yes. See 240 unten.
• What are problem solving strategies? -Heuristics - Problem reduction, means end analysis

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