Methods of Empirical Research (Fach) / Qualitative Research Methods (Lektion)

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• What do the statements „realization is a process of choice and construction” and “realization is a process of decision” mean? Realization is a process of choice and construction:Social reality cannot be realized in the whole; we need a process of abstraction under a specific perspective/research question:o    Choice of a part of realityo    Analysis of a part of realityAbstraction means construction and creation of social reality, based on specific expectations and experiences => reality is only a construct of our mind; never neutral! Realization is a process of decision:The choice of research questions (research purpose) and of the methods set into practice is based on decisions of the researcher.Important for the decisions are:- Status of development /problems of society- Judgment of possibilities/limitations of scientific realization: understanding of reality, relationship object – method- Constraints of budgets of realization: time, money- Individual circumstances of life of each single researcher within his own social relationships, his perception and assessment of social problems
• Please name characteristics of the epistemology for the ascent of qualitative research important aspects of Positivism and Critical Rationalism Epistemology is a branch of philosophy that studies the nature and use of knowledge.  Epistemological background:-The increasing interest in qualitative research seems to be caused by social criticism. The accelerated social changes and the diversification of social pattern of life create new social settings and perspectives which are new for researchers. More and more in tendency local explanations, limited-in-time-and-setting explanations are needed.-The reflection on this crisis and the little contribution of positivistic sociological tendencies to describe and to explain social phenomenon have not created a unique theoretical position.-By that the outcome of various counter movement have to link different epistemological positions to a common methodology. At the moment different theoretical approaches and their specific methods are in debate and set into practice.-Positivism & critical rationalism vs critical theory & constructivism Positivism (what we know is true)-Developed in the scientific-industrial revolution of 19th century. General notion that science has to proof realization about nature and culture in an empirical way. Reality is the realization and structure of only direct empirically sensual reality.-Realization is direct knowledge about the world, not the normative one, given by authorities or rules.-To create a theory by observation, three conditions have to be fulfilled:1)General rules have to be based on a large number of observations2)The observations are repeated  under a broad range of conditions3)None of the observations defeats the general rule=>”Generalization by induction”  Critical Rationalism (what we know today might not be true tomorrow)-Important advocates: Karl Raimund Popper, Hans Albrecht, Ernst Topitsch-Basic position of realization: Knowledge about reality is never a certain knowledge; Realization is, at least only approximately possible while in principle human reason may fail (Approximate realization of reality)-Aims of scientific research: Preparation of pattern like (nomological) statements(theories) about reality, which have to be proved empirically and inter-subjectively (2 researchers = same result), which can be used to explain, to predict and to handle the reality (deductive–nomological approach)-Getting scientific realization:General rules – not limited in space and time – do not exist at the moment:  a bundle of probabilistic statements does exist:Prepare rich statements (hypotheses) and check them logically and empirically by the scientific society (systematical criticizing).Drop out the faults by permanent attempts of refutation (falsification of hypotheses).Phase of realization and phase of utilization: no logically specified rules; common set of methodological instruments (methodological monism)-Science without normative preconditions:Phase of explanation: influence of researchers attitudes, values and ideologies is refused; Refuse of normative statements of judgment by empirical sciences (dualism of statements and norms) -Objections towards CR: No statements concerning the society as a whole; for that no relevance for explanation of the real society (only focusing in specific target group)If normative statements are not allowed, there is a missing of critical-ethical analysis and positioning. By this the researcher takes no responsibility, turns into his ivory-tower of pattern like statements and makes himself – by keeping quiet – guilty concerning disliked situations in a society.Main aim is a more technical aspect of explanation. Other aspects of realization are not taken into account and by that the researcher supports the ruling persons.=>Researcher in CR has to be neutral; they see themselves as part of the reality in which every individual has to make is/her own decisions about how they want society to be!
• What does it mean: “Construction of reality is the basic principle” of qualitative research ? Please explain the relationship of construction and interpretation and the sense of “mimesis” Mimesis: transformation of reality into symbolic words!-Principle of realization is the understanding: of the perspective of the subject, the ongoing process in social situations or the cultural/social rules of specific situations-Starting point of research is the reconstruction of cases in their situative context, probably with a setting which is common between researcher and object-Test as empirical material: to reconstruct social situations. Text is produced, which is the object of empirical analysis: interactive process between researcher and research objectMimesis 1: Interpretation (understanding, assign mean to action) -> Experience (natural/social environment; actions)Mimesis 2: Experience (natural/social environment; actions) -> Construction (text as vision of world)Mimesis 3: Construction -> Interpretation 3 functions of text in qualitative research:1.Important sources of information (data)2.Base of interpretation3.Medium to present and to transmit realization
• What are the main aspects mentioned as a criticism towards quantitative social research? Name the basic principles of qualitative research. Please explain these principles. The main aspects mentioned as a criticism towards quantitative social research are:-Are the named problems sources of faults?-Do faults only appear in quantitative approach?-Are these faults avoidable in qualitative approach? (No, you can do mistakes in any one research strategy.) The basic principles of qualitative research are:-Political, not value free. (Positioning is important)-Flexible, not restricted. (Flexible for the use of the instruments in the research. Not restricted to a specific group or localization. Flexible in any kind of research design, working method, etc. Each combination of instruments is possible.)-Subjective, not objective. (but explication-rule)-Speculative, not hypothesis-testing (Always looking for an additional meaning or additional interpretation of a specific situation. Gathering different points of view, not selection them.)-Soft, not hard. (This stands for the interpretation of the results.)-Process, not fixed. (We are focusing on time slots more than on a specific point on time.)-Reflexive, not separated. (Research as a communication process.) (We are aware that as researcher we are part of society.)
• One theoretical approach of qualitative social research is the “ground theory”: what are the basic assumptions and what is called “systematical dimensionalising” Background: Gap between theory and empirical research that cannot be minimized by standard methodsAim: find real life theories; qualitative research is not the explorative 1st step  towards quantitative approaches but an own standing science; focuses on generating a theory and on data sets which are base of that theory!Constant comparative method: by permanent comparison, the structural characteristics of theoretical concepts can be explored. This is a special form os systematic-experimantal analysis in the epistemological tradition of falsification logicSystematical dimensionalising  (by strauss 1998)- Concept indicator model: 1. Researcher examines and compares different pattern of behavior codes and names them as indicators of behavioral patterns;2. Up to the point, where comparison and exchange of indicators are not evoking knew realization (=”theoretical saturation”). There is one concept that can be explained by different indicators/data sets. Aim is to compare and analyze those data sets in order to find the right explanation – but how do we know the right explanation? Is there only one explanation???
• Give a definition of „Biographical life history“: what are the purposes and the basic assumptions? Describe the procedure of working! -Def.: “Analysis of personal documents (diaries, letters, memoirs, autobiography, testimonial statements etc.) or of reconstruction of CV´s (by interviews)”. Different understandings of the concepts “biographical” or “personal” document do exist.-Individualization by sociological awareness, because it is caused by rules and social norms: biographical records of the past are seen as a projection of social processes and structures, as ongoing interaction of the subject with the objectively given social reality.-Validity of biographical record is given by the narrative need to end a story or by requests, based on contradictions and unclear statements.- Purposes:1) To explore recurrent phenomenon2) To identify such social phenomenon, which structure CVs-Procedure:1. Processing of stories of lives (Adequate description of CV; Identification of social determination factors, differentiation of own records and records by others)2. Comparison of case studies i. S. (in terms of?) of confirmation/contrast (Construction of types; comparative casuistic)-Biographical research: Use of case studies under specific theoretical approach. Mostly with a set of various methods.-Be cautious: Biographical studies appear sometimes similar to sociocritical-literatical stories! 
• Describe research questions and basic assumptions of "Phenomenological approach". - derived from phenomenon (Greek) → any occurrence that is observable → approach tries to get a neutral overview of the world people are living in Research Questions (Heinze, 2001) - How are objectively given societal conditions (settings) transmitted into individual expressions of single persons? (–> find explanations for behavior in social setting)- Are there any interruptions and not coherent situations in the outer expression of the setting? (→ uncover situations where the individual behavior did not fit the social setting)- The pattern of understanding: Do they really link the mainly emotional, subjective data processing with the objective structure?     If yes: What are the rules of transformation to analyze them? Basic Assumptions (Heinze, 2001) 1) One knows one's life environment/ every human being lives in a world which is in principal reasonable to him- Life environment = vision of my recent and former experiences of perceived things and their interrelations. The experiences are more or less conscious concerning clearness, impression, consistence and coherence→ Problem: it is difficult to know the environment as it remains principally an open reality (spatially open, timely open, open at the level of reality, open at the societal dimension) →2) Every human being is willing to accept that an inner relation between his biography and his actual circumstances of life exists3) The own circumstances of life can be explained to others
• Different levels of analysis exist for description and explanation of agri-social systems. Describe briefly the most important contents of these levels of analysis. (18.11.2010) There are 5 different levels of analysis in the food supply chain/agri-social systems: Structure of social systems-Structures of normative expectations (programmes for social action):  reasons, explanations, social values, norms, practices, law…-Structure of members: demographical and social structures, willingness and preparedness of action Function of social systems in agrifood business-Results and impacts concerning   -Satisfying the needs of members   -Continuity and functionality of the system (stability of the system or whether it can be applied to other systems- Nolten)   -Other social systems of the non-agriultural population/society (eg farmer’s association) Change of social systems in the food supply chain-Kind, extent & impact of factors of structural & functional differentiation in the process of development Frame conditions-Status & process of factors of societal development-Cultural base, political conditions, economic, social and agricultural system/food supply chain-Profile of demand concerning structure & function of agri-social systems-Target system of agricultural or food policy, strategies and measurements of agricultural/food industrial support-Natural, technical, economic, infrastructural & socio-cultural aspects of location Social situation of the agricultural population-Intra-sectoral comparison-Inter-sectoral comparison-Inter-regional comparison of the circumstances and the chances of life of the agricultural populationSaturation of the basic needs, education, working conditions, labor market, social security, participation Those slides are part of the slides concerning the “general theory of Action” which attempts to reconstruct reality by viewing social systems as “patterns of actions” which are executed by “pattern variables” instead of persons. The problem here is to differentiate analytical and empirical components of a model.  Following the general theory of action social systems are differentiated -Functional (independent components of a social system responsible for fulfilling a certain task/function; eg producers, processors, supplier -me)-Segmental/structural (social systems that produce the same results eg apple supply chain, potato supply chain…-me)-Stratificatoric (by hierarchy eg retail, farm owner, worker, seasonal worker)
• Validity is an important quality criterion of quantitative social research. Explain in comparison the different forms of validity in qualitative research and give rules for procedure validity. Validity: = extent of which a measuring instrument really measures what is intended to measure; best practice: continuity of measured structural dimensions under a wide ranged variation of perspectives 1.Internal Validity: Testing the linkage between theory/concepts and the operationalization=>Qualitative Research: inter-subjective testing2.External Validity: Testing the linkage between operationalization and the perception of reality=>Qualitative Research: level of content of reality  Validity evaluation at qualitative research: 1. Ecological validity à plausibility test in the life environment2. Communicative validity à plausibility check by repetition of survey (member check) but: facing the results can embedding ethic problems à better: to look for negative examples3.Argumentative validity à in debate with the reader (peer debriefing) (review in literature)4.Cumulative validity à ongoing process of several research activities (use of different instruments or same instruments at different settings/times)5.Practical validity à implementation and test in societal reality (check if u really avoided mistakes)6.Procedure validity à taking care of rules in the research process7.Triangulation validity à combination of complementary means Rules for procedure validity:· The researcher should listen more than he speaks·  He should start making notes as early as possible·  His records should be exactly·  His report should be complete and open for debate (inter-subjective check)·  The researcher in the field should ask his colleagues for feed-back (same blind-spot, same pov)·   A balance between different perspectives is needed
• Explain the approach of “Validity by triangulation”! Explain other quality criterions in qualitative research. 1-     Triangulation of data: Data sets of different sources are twined to one phenomenon. Delzin (1970) asks for analysis of the “same phenomenon” at different times, locations and with different persons:2-     Triangulation of researchers: Several researchers are sent into the field to eliminate their individual impact on the research: systematical comparison, no job sharing!  (All researches enter the field with the same bundle of instruments.)3-     Triangulation of theoretical concepts: Interpretation of data sets by several perspectives (theoretical approaches) Triangulation: Different perspective, different aspects. By different means you get different views on the objects.                                   -Benefits :            i.        Researcher cannot focus himself on prejudices, cannot ignore alternative    approachesii.        In tendency earlier step to a more generalizing researchiii.        Common with the process of falsification: negative evidence or theoretical synthesis.4-     Triangulation of methods: 1) Between – method – approach: several methods in combination (observation + interview +…) 2) variation of a method (within method, eg different interviews) Other quality criterions are:1-     Reliability: repeated measurements of an object by the same measuring instrument show up the same measuring valuesDimensions of reliability:                                                                                                       - sources of unreliability: bad wording (avoid word which are not really clear in the interview) , diff circumstances (different circumstances give us different information) - testing reliability: test-retest method, split-half-method (have a focus of development over the time), scales rather than single-items- increasing reliability: use of well tested questions from reputable questionnaires 2-     Representativity: from the results of a controlled sample can- within the limits of statistical faults concerning – a conclusion drawn on the variation of characteristics within the population. This conclusion is only drawn for random samples! Representativity is no target in qual. research- Can we be sure that the single case is reflecting the structure of the whole? The only generalization might be: there is no generalization! (we only get a deeper insight and explanation; quantitative research delivers numbers but no reasons) 3-     Trustworthiness: Relation of the structure of object and the construction of the researcher; concepts are :       a - creditability : by triangulation, peer briefing, analytical induction, member checksB - Transferability: test by the reader (external coherence) (we invite others to check if our results are true in practice.)c - Dependability: by “auditing trail” (focusing on the process) research process management                                                                                                                     d- conformability: check of research concept (internal coherence): adequate sampling, weightening of the data? Right analytic strategies? Feed-back possible?
• Describe the basic types of research designs concerning their aims and their use in qualitative research. 1.     Hypothesis testing research- Hypothesis testing is a systematic method used to evaluate data and aid the decision-making process.Aims- testing of survey data interpretations of general rules- Decision between different hypotheses- Stronger testing of empirically accepted hypothesis. 2.     Quasi-experiment is a research design having some but not all of the characteristics of a true experiment.Aim: analysis of cause-impact-relationships (causal analysis)Type: laboratory experiment, field experiment. 3.     Program evaluation is a systematic method for collecting, analyzing, and using information to answer questions about projects, policies and programs particularly about their effectiveness and efficiency.Aim: evaluation of direction and power of impactsType: impact analysis, implementation research, acceptance research. 4.     Descriptive research conceptsAim: description + explanation of parts of social realityType: exploration, hypothesis generating, decision making, illustrations by cases.
• Describe characteristics and purpose of “narrative interviews”. Explain the framework of telling and the sequence of research steps. Purpose: Original appearance of a social phenomenon in its complete form and in its social context.Use: In biographical research, organisation or transformation research.Character: Asymmetric distribution of speech shares to reduce the impacts of interviewer (in the role of a curious, but not interrupting listener).Frame condition: Social reality is not fixed; it is an action process, which is actualised during interaction, handled in an ongoing social process. To analyse social reality the communicative interactions have to be analysed reasonably.Framework of telling: following the formal structure of an off-the-cuff narration   - need to end shape and elements   - need to stress the important things   - need to concentrate on the important points and red line   - need to go into details at important points   - need to construct causual links   - need to use starters and end ups  Sequence of research steps:   -Preliminary talk (trust generating, self-introduction)   -Stimulating the telling (giving the stimulus, negotiation and agreement)   -Telling (with closing sentence)   -Immanent request (focussing a life phase, a mentioned situation or a supporting story     for an argument OR testing of assumed thesis? Collecting of stories?)   -Socio-economic screening   -Phasing out the interview   -Interview documentation
• What are the problems and the critics concerning "narrative interviews"? How would you analyze such an interview? Problems-No off-the-cuff narration: no trust? Bad stimulus? Bad steering?-Use of these interviews?-Psychological stress by traumatic situations-Interviews may start self-reflection processMethodological Criticism1. Is the narrative corpus corresponding to the narrated action and realization process?2. Is the narrative interview able to reconstruct realization settings of the past?3. Do narrations present authentic material in a specific way?4. Is it reasonable to link the sociological research to a subjective perspective?5. without reflection: are the centered objectives reconstructed or constructed by the n. interview?6. Is there a dependency on cultural settings?Analysis of a Narrative Interview:Analysis according to Schütze: 1. Formal text analysis: cut off the non-narrative parts, segmentation2. Structural description: background? 3. Analytic abstraction4. Analysis of state of the art5. Comparison with other cases (min/max differences)6. Construction of a theoretical model
• Discuss the difference between “problem centered”, “focused” and “depth” interview! The problem-centered interview: (not open minded à focus on one detail)Purpose: To get topic-related experiences by different means from various persons to check a temporary hypothesis/theoretical conceptCharacteristics:1.     Problem-oriented: focusing on a societal problem2.     Object-oriented: methods are developed/modified at the object3.     Process-oriented: Understanding and use of methods depends on the ongoing process (deepenà more and more into details) Use: To get a deeper knowledge to single aspects, the interviewer uses a guideline in a semi-structured form at several situations in a narrative interview. By open questions he wants to focus the narration and to give a further stimulus for narration.The researcher tests his theoretical concept while the process of generating the concept is determined by the interviewee.   The focused interview: (open format approach, open questions)Purpose: To check a temporary hypothesis/theoretical concept by the subjective experiences of the interviewed persons.Characteristics:1.     No influence à late use of structured questions; flexible use of guide2.     Specification à specific incentives provoke detailed reactions (to check hypothesis)3.     Broad range of aspects met by the  stimulusà all relevant aspects are mentioned by the interviewee, who can bring in new aspects; interviewer has to handle all predetermined and invited new aspects4.     Profound individual information à deep self-explicational comments Use: Interview-guideline concludes a set of topics, of objects and of suggestions for questions. By open questions the researcher wants to give an incentive for narration, arguing, reporting, valuation of a known situation.The researcher tests his hypothesis concept. Open sequences have to avoid the character of predetermination by the researcher’s concept.   The depth interview: (need of special knowledge with psychological background)Purpose: To gain subjective evaluations, meanings by the interviewee, which are still not aware Characteristics:·         Based on daily-life communication·         Psychoanalytical approach and interview techniques·         Given structure, less open course·         Interpretations mainly given by the researcher in a context, which is a strange one for the interviewee
• Name purposes, preconditions and steps of interpretation of the “focus group discussion”. Focus group discussion = reception of structure and content of opinions and attitudes of groups concerning a special topic. Theoretical perspective: common biographical setting leads to pattern of communication and interaction processes, which occurs in FDG in a representative way. No situational creation of opinions i.s. of Symbolic Interactionism. Purposes of the “focus group discussion”:·         To uncover “informal opinions of groups”·         To uncover the process of opinion making by common interaction·         To study the process of correction of extreme, not desired wrong position·         To uncover different opinions/ positions concerning the topic·         Single opinion appear without psychological barriers·         Attitudes, opinions, behavior are receipted in the context, not isolated. Preconditions of the “focus group discussion”:·         Technical preconditions:                                                                                                        - separate, comfortable, well-known room           - 2 microphones  I/r for recording·         Before / at the beginning of the discussion                                                                            - “warm up"            - technical preparation finished; recorder in “start” postion            - short inaugural adress           - adequate linguistic level           - draw a clear defining line to the group interview           - self-discipline as the leader·         During the discussion                                                                                                            - 1. Phase: keep on self-running           - 2.Phase: immanent inquiry; address: whole group           - 3.Phase: exmanent inquiry            - 4.Phase: direct inquiry; stressing of discrepancies·         At the end: record of places of seats, linguistic characteristics.                       Steps of interpretation of the “focus group discussion”:    1.     Formulating interpretation: flow of themes and their run; Thematical parts with a high  density of discussion selected for transcription are identified.2.     Reflecting interpretation: discovery of the sense of discussion; identification of focusing metaphors (at attentionsful debates); explicit look for possibilities of external comparison, identification of the inner structure of the discourse.3.     Reconstruction of discourse4.     Construction of types         
• Describe the sequences phases of focus group discussion and name the advantages of FGD in comparison of personal interview FGD step by step: Strangeness ->Orientation->Adoption->Familiarity->Conformity->Phasing out           -           FGD vs. Interview – advantages:1.     Broader range of reactions2.     Broader range of opinions3.     More pleasant, relaxed atmosphere4.     More similar to daily-life situations of talks5.     Provokes more ad-hoc reactions6.     Makes debate of sensitive topics easier7.     Varieties of opinions become obvious8.     Provokes more detailed and thoughtful contributions9.     Provokes not-public opinions to become obvious10.  Less effort, more data
• Characterize „participant observation“ and describe the different roles of the observer. What does the “dilemma of distance and involvement” mean? Participant ObservationParticipant observation is a method of collecting empirical data widely used in sociological research. It involves the researcher being in direct contact with the subject group.Participant observation is usually taken to refer to more than just observing while participating (the observer is not just observing the research group)Interviews, chats, analysis of documents are all activities that may be combined with the participant observation. Observer as an interactive partner (having influence on the partner, get to know the partner)Participant Observation is favored in qualitative approaches of empirical social research Participant Observation is used, whenever the social construction of reality and bargaining processes of situational definitions are reflected. Different roles of observer-          Participatory/non-participatory observation: observer as an interactive part or only in the role of a minute-taker – observer as a part of the observed group or the opposite.-          Open/hidden observation: Announcement/Non-Announcement of observation and knowledge/ignorance of the observed persons – open observation means revealing that the group is being observed. This can reduce the stress at the observer as he can be discovered and thus terminate research project. Secret observation on the other hand reduces the impact of the researcher on the group (research group does not know that they are observed).-          Structured/non-structured observation: extent of orientation at a scheme of categoriesStructured observation: the technique where observer gather (collect) information directly without the mediation observed persons (interviewees for example). The data is collected according to carefully defined rules and procedures.Non-structured observation: the researcher enters the field with some general ideas of what might be prominent, but not of what specifically will be observed. Hence, this observation is holistic, unstructured, and unfocused, with the investigator attempting to document as much as possible about the setting and its participants in order to discover themes of interest. Unstructured observation is not constrained by coding schemes.-          Observation in natural, not determined situations / in artificial, standardized situationNaturalistic observation is a research tool in which a subject is observed in its natural habitat without any manipulation by the observer. “Dilemma of distance and involvement” The ability to get familiar with the daily-life setting of observed persons is determined by the researcher’s social background. Very often we need to have contact to key persons. The key persons who are the same age group (peer group) have great influence on the group and are important, but it may happen that they are not always the one giving the best information. “Problem being too close can happen, thus maybe we cannot form our own opinion, but on the other hand if we don’t stay close, will we have the right access to the situation? (It can happen that if we are not too close, not having the right view of the situation we are observing.
• What are the fields of observation and how would you construct a model of scientific observations? Observation is the active acquisition of information from a primary source. Observation may refer to any data collected during the scientific activity (e.g. research). Fields of Observation1.     Interdependencies with other areas (when two areas depend on each other)2.     Spatial (space) extension3.     Number of persons: status, groups, relationships, targets, norms4.     Level of organizational structure: purpose, extent of hierarchy5.     Patterns and channels of communication6.     Repeated situations: numbers, kind, place, duration, actors  To get a good observation1.     Research question: is the form of observation covering the main aspects of the research or not2.     Procedure of Observation: Decision needs theoretical and practical reasons3.     Observer: Is he able to set into practice, without his fears etc.?4.     Object of Observation: fits the observation form to the group?5.     Research fields: is the access given? Is it ethically correct?6.     Action field of the objects: how are different perspectives recorded, is the methodological frame open for the unexpected?7.     Observation process: is the observer in his role? Is the role of the observed persons clear for them? Is everyone able to play his role?8.     Purpose of analysis: clearly defined pattern of action or multidimensional contexts?9.     Generalization (provokes a problem): level of abstraction and interpretation: case study – group level – general explanation?
• Name and characterize quantitative content analysis. What kinds of qualitative content analysis are possible and what are their characteristics? Quantitative Content Analysis1.     Determination of the kind of text (what kind of text is)2.     Sample by time, region, source, content - Sampling reduces the whole of available objects of analysis to a manageable corpus which is representative of the whole set.3.     Definition of the operation unit       Word – part of a word – groups of words – sentences – passages – articles – pages        – headlines – minute sequences – statements4.     Development of a category scheme – Creating a coding scheme for content categories is a paramount step in quantitative content analysis. The coding scheme includes a code book that defines and illustrates all of the variables being evaluated.5.     Decoding of the operation units by the category scheme 6.     Data classifying and analysis of the coded material7.     Verification on reliability and of validity Qualitative Content AnalysisThe qualitative content analysis consists in a bundle of techniques for systematic text analysis.The object of qualitative content analysis can be all sort of recorded communication (transcripts of interviews, speeches, protocols of observations, video tapes, documents ...)Qualitative Content Analysis represents a broad set of methods for analyzing the content of some qualitative material to built or support an argument. Text analysis in Qualitative Content Analysis:Preparing interpretation:1.     Text criticism: is text authentic? Do we have an actual version?2.     Awareness of prejudices: documentation of the own prejudices, expectations, questions3.     Identification of overall sense: by first reading, by others Text-immanent interpretation:4.     Interpretation of wording and grammar: in the sense of hermeneutic circle semantic and syntactical analysis5.     Use of logical rules: to uncover the latent sense by structuring6.     Handling of contradictions: reasonable action is alleged, if it cannot be explainedCoordinating interpretation:7.     Comparison with other texts of the author8.     Uncovering authors attitudes: if possible to uncover religious or political attitudes9.     Transcription: if an realization is necessary for understanding10.   Generating hypothesis: creation and testing
• What does “hermeneutic” mean? Explain the “hermeneutic circle” and rules of hermeneutics Hermeneutics:Hermeneutic is the theory of text understanding and interpretation. Hermeneutics is derived from the Greek word which means to interpret (god Hermes). Hermeneutics is interpretation and understanding of social events by analyzing what social events mean to human and their culture.In sociology Hermeneutics is  heavily influenced by Gadamer, Schleiermacher, Dilthey, Heidegger and Habermas“Understanding” instead of “Explanation” as a scientific method of gaining knowledgeUlrich Oevermann developed the concept of “neutral hermeneutics”, the most reknown (?) theoretical approachHermeneutic circle:The hermeneutic circle describes the process of understanding a text hermeneutically. It refers to the idea that one’s understanding of the text as a whole is established by reference to the individual parts and ones understanding of each individual part by reference to the whole. Neither the whole text nor any individual part can be understood without reference to one another, and hence, it is a circle.The comprehensive is interpreted by its pieces, but at the same time the interpretation of a piece needs the understanding of the whole  Rules of interaction (and interpretation):a)     Embedmentless (without embedment)1.     Which sense has a text, not referring to its actual context?2.     Answering by thoughtful experimental contexts: setting of a bundle of different meanings as a starting point of analysisb)    Precise analysis of wordening1.     Focusing on explanation of what is said: especially while differences occur between text sense and habit2.     Priority is given to the Interpretation of the habitc)     Sequentiality (By the order)1.     Focusing on reconstruction of the text structure and its origin2.     Not looking for fitting text passages, but ongoing step by step3.     Covering the forthcoming passages4.     Development of  plausible continuations5.     Interpretation of a text passage on the base of former passagesd)    Extensivity1.     Principally no part of a text sequence is excluded from interpretation2.     Interpretation has to  cover all possibilities of sense opportunitiese)     Economy1.     Only these interpretations are accepted which are forced by the text2.     These interpretations have no contradictions.3.     Other interpretations are excluded not by the reason of being “false”, but not to hinder the drawing of plausible interpretive conclusions

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