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Psychologie (Fach) / KogEmo2Chapter 3 (Lektion)

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• Defeniton Perception The set of process by which we recognize, organize and make sense from the the sensations we receive from environmental stimuli Die Menge von Prozessen, durch die wir die Empfindungen, die wir durch Umweltreize erhalten, erkennen, organisieren und sinnvoll machen
• What is a key to perception? Knowledge
• What did James Gibson introduce? Concepts of distal object, informational medium, proximal stimulation and perceptual object. Konzepte von distalem Objekt, Informationsmedium, proximaler Stimulation und Wahrnehmungsobjekt.     
• Beispiel für distales Objekt, Informationsmedium, proximaler Stimulation und Wahrnehmungsobjekt. Omas Fresse - Reflektiertes Licht von Omas Fresse - Photon (Licht) wird von den Rezeptoren des Auges (Zapfen und Stäbchen) aufgenommen - Omas Fresse
• Questions of sensation focus on .... qualities of stimulation
• Perception questions typically relate to .... identity and form, pattern and movement
• When does cognition occur? When the information from perception is used to determine further goals
• What is sensory adaption? Receptor cells adapt to constant stimulation by not firing until there is a change in stimulation. Rezeptorzellen passen sich der konstanten Stimulation an, indem sie erst feuern, wenn sich die Stimulation ändert.     
• What is "ganzfeld"?  is a phenomenon of perception caused by exposure to an unstructured, uniform stimulation field. The effect is the result of the brain amplifying neural noise in order to look for the missing visual signals. The noise is interpreted in the higher visual cortex, and gives rise to hallucinations.
• What does the existence of perceptual illusions suggest? That what we sense is not necessarily what we perceive
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• What is the precondition for vision? The existence of light
• What is the human range of visible wavelenghts ? from 380 to 750 nanometers
• Erkläre wie das Licht durchs Auge verarbeitet wird Licht durch Cornea (Schutzhülle) -> Dann durch Pupille (die Öffnung der Iris) -> dann durch die Linse und den Glasskörper -> dann trifft es auf die Retina (welche Photorezeptoren hat) und wird zu neuralen elektromagnetischen Impulsen
• Welche 2 Arten von Photorezeptoren gibt es und wie viele davon sind jeweils im Auge 120 Mio Stäbchen (rod) und 8 Mio Zäpfchen (Cones)
• Wo sind die Stäbchen (rods) und was machen sie besonders? Befinden sich in der Peripherie der Retina und sind verantwortlich Nachtsicht
• Wo befinden sich die Zäpfchen (Cones) und was machen sie? In der foveal region und ermöglichen Farbwahrnehmung
• what-where hypothesis The information from the visual cortex in the occipital lobe is forward through two fasciculi: one acsends toward the parietal lobe (along the dorsal pathway), and one descends to the temporal lobe (along the ventral pathway). The dorsal pathway is also called the where pathway and is responsible for processing location and motion information; the ventral pathway is called the what pathway because it is mainly responsible for processing the color, shape, and identity of visual stimuli 
• what–how hypothesis This hypothesis suggests the two pathways refer not to what things are and to where they are, but rather to what they are and to how they function. The what pathway can be found in the ventral stream and is responsible for the identification of objects. The how pathway is located in the dorsal stream and controls movements in relation to the objects that have been identified through the what path- way.
• bottum-up theories describe approaches in which perception starts with the stimuli whose appearance you take in through your eye.  They are data driven
• top-down theories perception is driven by high-level cognitive processes, existing knowledge, and the prior expactations that influence perception. Expections are important
• 4 main bottom-up theories direct perception, template theories, feature theories, recognition-by-components
• (Gibson’s) Theory of Direct Perception The information in our sensory receptors is all we need to perceive anything We do not need higher cognitive processes or anything else to mediate between our sensory experiences and our perceptions
• why is Gibson’s Theory of Direct Perception often also called ecological perception? Because our enviroment supplies us with all the information we need for perception
• Template theories and what are templates Template theories suggest that our minds store myriad sets of templates. Templates are highly detailed models for patterns we might recognize
• gehören template theories zu den chunk-based theories? und wenn ja, was genau ist das? yes; these theories suggest that expertise is attained by acquiring chunks of knowledge in long-term memory that can later be accessed for fast recognition.
• Probleme der Template Theorie It rarely would work if you required exact matches for every stimulus you were to recognize. Imagine, for example, needing mental templates for every possible percept of the face of someone you love. Imagine one for each facial expression, each angle of view- ing, each addition or removal of makeup, each hairdo, and so on. Template-matching theories fail to explain some aspects of the perception of letters
• Feature-Matching Theories According to these theories, we attempt to match features of a pattern to features stored in memory, rather than to match a whole pattern to a tem- plate or a prototype (
• The Pandemonium Model is a feature-matching theory from Oliver Selfridge  In this model, 4 metaphorical “demons” with specific duties receive and analyze the features of a stimulus
• Kinds of demons in the Pandemonium theory and what is their job image demons, feature demons, cognitive demons, and decision demons. The “image demons” receive a retinal image and pass it on to “feature demons.” Each feature demon calls out when matches are made between the stimulus and the given feature. These matches are yelled out at demons at the next level of the hierarchy, the “cognitive (thinking) demons.” The cognitive demons in turn shout out possible patterns stored in memory that conform to one or more of the features noticed by the feature demons. A “decision demon” listens to the pandemonium of the cognitive demons. It decides on what has been seen, based on which cognitive demon is shouting the most frequently
• Recognition-by-Components Theory, How do we form stable 3-D mental representations of objects? The recognition-by-com- ponents theory explains it, using simple geometric shapes.
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• local vs global feature local feature constitute the small-scale or detailed aspects of a given pattern. A global feature gives a form its overall shape
• What is the global precedence effect? What is the local precedence effect? They were slowed down if they had to identify local (small) S’s combining to form a global (big) H instead of identifying local (small) H’s combining to form a global (big) H. participants more quickly identify the local features of the individual letters than the global ones, and the local features interfere with the global recogni- tion in cases of contradictory stimuli So when the letters are close together at the local level, people have problems identifying the local stimuli (small letters) if they are not concordant with the global stimulus When the letters on the local level are relatively far apart from S each other, it is harder for people to identify the global stimulus (big letter) S if it is not concordant with the local stimuli (small letters)
• Seeing with the Help of Geons Irving Biederman (1987) suggested that we rec- ognize 3-D objects by manipulating simple geometric shapes called geons
• How do we recognize objects according to the recognition-by-components theory? by observing the edges of them and then decomposing the objects into geons
• Is there a difference between the face-recognition performance of adults and 8-year old children? No
• Problems with the recognition-by-component theory? explains how we may recognize general instances of chairs, lamps, and faces, but it does not adequately explain how we recognize particular chairs or particular faces. cannot explain how we can distinguish one face from the next. Another problem with Biederman’s approach, and the bottom-up approach in general, is how to account for the effects of prior expectations and environmental context on some phenomena of pattern perception.
• Neuroscience and Recognition-by-Components Theory Many neurons, however, respond primarily to one view of an object and decrease their response gradually the more the object is rotated. This finding contradicts the notion of Biederman’s theory that we recognize objects by means of viewpoint-invariant geons. As a result, it is not clear at this point whether Biederman’s theory is correct. 
• constructive perception The perceiver builds (constructs) a cognitive understanding (perception) of a stimulus. The concepts of the perceiver and his or her cognitive processes influence what he or she sees. The perceiver uses sensory information as the foundation for the structure but also uses other sources of information to build the perception.
• why is constructive perception also known as intelligent perception? ecause it states that higher-order thinking plays an important role in perception. It also emphasizes the role of learning in perception
• According to constructivists, during perception, we quickly form and test various hypotheses regarding percepts. The percepts are based on the following:  what we sense (the sensory data)  what we know (knowledge stored in memory)  what we can infer (using high-level cognitive processes)
• Do bottum-up theories explain context effects? What are those cntext effects? No they do not. Context effects are the influ- ences of the surrounding environment on perception 
• What is the configural-superiority effect ? objects presented in certain configu- rations are easier to recognize than the objects presented in isolation, even if the objects in the configurations are more complex than those in isolation.
• What is the object-superiority effect? a target line that forms a part of a drawing of a 3-D object is identified more accurately than a target that forms a part of a disconnected 2-D pattern
• What is the word-superiority effect? People are presented with strings of letters, it is easier for them to identify a single letter if the string makes sense and forms a word instead of being just a nonsense sequel of letters. For example, it is easier to recognize the letter o in the word house than in the word huseo.
• Why should we both use bottom-up and top-down theories? An extreme top-down position would drastically underestimate the importance of sensory data therefore it would be highly error-prone and inefficient  An extreme bottom-up position, however, would not allow for any influence of past experience or knowledge on perception. Why store knowledge that has no use for the perceiver?
• viewer-centered representation, The individual stores the way the object looks to him or her. Thus, what matters is the appearance of the object to the viewer (in this case, the appearance of the computer to the author), not the actual struc- ture of the object. The shape of the object changes, depending on the angle from which we look at it. A number of views of the object are stored, and when we try to recognize an object, we have to rotate that object in our mind until it fits one of the stored images.
• object-centered representation he individual stores a representation of the object, independent of its appearance to the viewer. In this case, the shape of the object will stay stable across different orientations 
• "Recent research suggest that it is more likely that we engage in viewer-centerd representation than object-centered representation" Right or wrong? That is correct
• The overarching law of the Gestalt approach is ... The law of Prägnanz.
• What is the law of Prägnanz? We tend to per- ceive any given visual array in a way that most simply organizes the different elements into a stable and coherent form.

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