Linguistik Seminar (Fach) / Syntax (Lektion)
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- Syntax -study of sentence structure-study of the rules which make it possible to combine smaller linguistic units into well-formed sentences
- sentence -largest independent syntactic unit which is not embedded in any larger construction-can be broken down into phrases
- phrase -constructed around a head word that is the main word of the phrase
- sentences (types) simple sentence-subject-predicate structure, one main clause complex sentence:-more than one clause (compound = several main clauses) or complex (at least one main and one subordinate clause)subordinate clause = Nebensatz differerent types of subordinate clauses depending on their grammatical function they express nominal clausesfunction as subject, object or complement clauses subject clause◦ That students enjoy grammar proves my point.◦ That this arrangement may not work out is very upsetting.tests that show that these embedded clauses are subjects, e.g.◦ can replace them with ordinary NP or replace with pronouns in nominative case ◦ This fact proves my point – They prove my point◦ That possibility is very upsetting – It is very upsetting Object clauseJohn claims he has earned his first million already. We believe he exaggerates a great deal.embedded structures are the direct objects of claim or believe again can replace with NPs and pronouns in accusative case John claims silly things – He claimed themWe believe his exaggerations – We believe themObject clause Complement clause 1. The problem is that we should teach language, not grammaràsubject complement2. She dyes her hair whatever color her car isàobject complementlinking verbs often allow their subject complements to be expressed as clauses (1.) some verbs that take object complements allow those complements to be expressed as a clause (2)
- word classes = snytactic categories: noun, verb, adjective, preposition, adverb, determiner
- phrases (types) endocentric phrase-exhibit the same distribution as their heads-endocentric constroctuin --> construction that contains a head, which is the single obligatory element in the construction (except in coordinate constructions, which have multiple heads), and one or more optional elements subordinate to the headThere is wet paint on the bench.-NP "the wet paint" is an endocentric construction-paint = obligatory head and may stand alone-wet = optional subordinate element exocentric phrase -neither have the same semantic distribution as their heads nor that of any other of their consistense.g. PP in London --> phrase as a whole can take neither the position of the preposition nor that of the noun phrase it is in connection with ◦John sat in the garden◦*John sat in◦*John sat the garden
- Grammatical relations --> functional roles -syntactic functions of individual phrases and clauses in a sentence, the grammatical relations they express in a sentence subject (what the sentence is about (a.k.a. the topic of the sentence)) Position: in English preverbal◦I am at home, he is at homeSubject-verb agreement: I am at home, you are at home...Case marking: NP can be replaced by pronouns à pronoun in nominative case will be the subjectàThe man handed the child to the girlàHe handed him to her subjects need to be realized: obligatory◦Hier darf getanzt werden◦One may dance here◦*Here may danced be verb (Kortmann = predicate/VPàcontaining all obligatory constituents except for the subject, thus sentence can be parsed into NP and VP --> binary construction) containing all obligatory constituents except for the subject◦verbal nucleus, object(s), complement(s), and adverbial(s) verbal nucleus in predicate can have, depending on tense◦up to four aux+one main verb --> he might have been being interviewed ◦non-finite forms --> having arrived object (direct & indirect) Position: in English preverbal◦I am at home, he is at homeSubject-verb agreement: I am at home, you are at home...Case marking: NP can be replaced by pronouns à pronoun in nominative case will be the subjectàThe man handed the child to the girlàHe handed him to her subjects need to be realized: obligatory◦Hier darf getanzt werden◦One may dance here◦*Here may danced be Position: postverbalobjects show no agreement with the verbCase markingàreceive object caseobligatoryàdepending on transitivity of verb (transitive and ditransitive verbs)direct and indirect objects complement - (subject complements (My father is a teacher/ very old), object complements (I consider him a hero/really witty)) adverbial - provide information about the circumstances of the action denoted by the verb and its subject and object(s)
- sentence patterns (7) SV -Edgar spoke.SVO -Edgar enjoys apples.SVOO -William gave Susi a dog.SVC -Mary is a doctor.SVOC -She painted the room green.SVA -The king is away.SVOA -Oskar put his bike away.
- Semantic roles agent: element carriying out an action patient: element effected by the action recipient/benefactive: goal of the action, the object/participant which profits from the action place: I saw him in the driveway. source: She borrowed a book from the library. goal: John went home.instrument: He ate pasta with a fork.time: I saw him this morning.
- Eng VP 1) auxiliary verbsauxiliary has the same function like flectional endings primary (be, have, do)-primary verbs are compulsory for:-the marking of different grammatical categories, and when forming questions -negating main verbs modals (can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must)Auxiliary haveassociated with perfect aspectauxiliary have is followed by a verb in the past participle formcan also function as main verbàI have a coldAuxiliary beassociated with progressive aspectbe + Vingbe may also serve as main verb Auxiliary do sort of exception if do occurs with a main verb-->main verb used in base form (John does sing) do may occur when the main verb is negated by not or n’t aux do and main verb do also differ in that they can co-occur (Did you do the dishes?) 2) main verbs tense (tense links the situation represented by a sentence to the time at which the sentence is uttered) aspect (aspect represents features of the temporal structure of the situation the sentence describes) voice valency (ability of verbs to open up slots around themselves which must/or can be filled) phrasal verbs (look after/up, take off, take in, give in...look similar to prepositional verbs (believe in, invest in, thank for, wait for, pull down), but differ in various aspects)
- Perfect Aspect represents an earlier situation as being relevant in some way at a later time situations that continue right up to the time of reference can be viewed in this way ◦I have been a taxpayer since 2006 àtime of reference is the time at which the sentence is uttered-->present perfect ◦By 2005, I had been a taxpayer for 23 long years --> time of reference is 2005, which is before “now” --> past perfect
- Progressive Aspect event is involving a period rather than merely a point of time◦The jet changed direction vs. The jet is changing direction progressive aspect viewed as temporary rather than permanent◦I live with my parents vs. I am living with my parents frequently represents a situation during which another situation occurs◦The burglar was leaving by the rear window as the police arrived
- Voice -active vs passive-concerns only transitive verbs-either form of be and a past participle (Jerry was chased by Tom) or get and a past participle (He got (himself) arrested)-prototypical subject in Passive construction has the semantic role of patient-active subject corresponds to the NP in the passive by-phrase and the passive subject corresponds to either a direct or indirect object in the active
- mediopassive -intransitive use of transitive verb-NP functioning as the subject (of the seemingly active sentence with an intransitively used) is rather the direct object of a transitive verb, fulfilling the semantic role of a patient ◦supposed agent is affected himself-reflexive relationship not like in German indicated by the use of a reflexive pronoun The book reads well.Ripe oranges peel well.