soil resources (Subject) / soils with vertical translocaion of oxides, organic matter and clay (Lesson)

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• how vertical translocation affected? soil constituents -> leachate physical soil properties climate
• conditions for Pozol formation cold to temperate humid climate  polar and subpolar regions humic Podzols in tropics high precipitation leads to leaching  permeable parent material -> high in sands and low in weatherable minerals (silicates), heath or coniferous vegeation low in pH
• helat bonding polyvalent cations -> characterisitic of soil oorganic matter quality of Podzol  --> dominant formation of fulvic acids -> high in carboxylic and pheloic groups acting a claws chelation of polyvalent cations
• podzolizaion 1.mobilization (cheluviation) -> albic E horizon 2.transport 3. precipitation (chilluviation) spodic B horizon
• vertical podzolization mobilization  vertical translocation  immobilization
• tropics with giant podzols precipitation > ET with parent material  organic matter eluviation
• management of podzol use low nutrient status, P fixation in spodic horizon, low pH, low leverl of available water capaciy low natural fertility
• how to managge podzol for arable use elemination of cemented B horizon (Ortstein) by deep ploughing liming -> avoid too high pH fertilization with NPK plaggen management  natural vegetation -> forest, extensive grazing 
• plaggen anthrosols -> plaggen podzols organic matter enrichment and nutrient (P) enrichment  by human
• Albeluvisols temperable with cold winters and short/cool summer  precipitation with peak in summer/ over whole year cold continental arts of NE Eirope/Asia and SW Canada loess and cover sand areas and old alluvial areas in moist temperate regions as France and Belgium 
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• Albeluvisols also Retisols!!!!! albus = white andd wash out loess an cover sand areas  spottic B not in Albeluvisol but in Podzols no albeluvic tonguing ind Luvisols
• Albeluviv tonguing clay illuviation horizon with an irregular upper boundary resulting from deep tonguing of bleched soil material into the illuviation horizon
• management of albeluvisols as agric limited by acidity and low nutrient level, tillage and drainage prob for forest livestock farming dominating arable cropping: cereals and potatoes and sugar bee 
• Luvisols characteristics temperate regions in subtropical regions on younger surfaces  high activity clay with argic B  -> mobilization of clay in thr surface soil and transport and immobilization of clay no abprut textural change (Planosols) no albeluvic tonguing -> albelusvisols
• how clay migration? 1.mobilizaion with peptization and eluviation 2. transport 3. immobilization -> precipitattion
• luvisols management moderate stage of weathering and base saturation -> wide use  Physical properties• mostly favorable,• susceptible to slaking, erosion, and compaction if siltytexture• mostly well drained and aerated, but argic B may developstagnic propertiesChemical properties• slightly acid, deep subsoil often calcareous• sufficient nutrient reserves, no meliorating fertilization• take care of pH with respect to structure stabilityUseTemperate zone: all arable crops, also demanding crops likewheat ad sugar beet, in slope positions orchards or pasture
• Luvisol charact high available field capacity:230 mm (1m depth) illitic clay fraction: effectivenutrient storage almost neutral pH high biological activity high and safe yields but: sensitive to compactionand soil erosion
• Alisols Humid (sub-)tropical and warm temperate climate• Latin America, West Indies, West Africa, highlands of EasternAfrica, Madagascar, southeast Asia, northern Australia• about 100 million ha used for agriculture in the tropics• also in subtropical and Mediterranean regions: China, Japan,SE USA; minor occurrences have been reported from aroundthe Mediterranean Sea (Italy, France, and Greece)
• Alisols characterizes.... High release of Al from parentmaterial (ongoing hydrolysis ofsecondary clay minerals asvermiculite and smectite)• Strongly acid• high activity clay in subsoil• Alisols have argic horizon (incommon with Acrisols, Lixisols,Luvisols and Albeluvisols)• They differ from– Acrisols and Lixisols becausethese soils lack high activity clays– from Luvisols because Luvisolslack ‘alic’ soil properties.• Alisols are less weathered than‘typical red tropical soils’ such asFerralsols and Nitisols
• Alisols use management • unproductive under all but acid-tolerant crops• low level of nutrients• Al toxicity• Shifting cultivation• low volume production of undemanding crops or grazing• tea, rubber, oil palm of increasing importance• susceptible to erosion• Preserve organic matter!• lime to eliminate Alexch; calculate appropriate amount• fertilization
• Acrisols on acid rocks (Pleistocene or older)• old surfaces in humid tropical regions• associated and alternating with Lixisols, Nitisols and Ferralsols• 1,000 Mill. ha• Southeast Asia, southern fringes of the Amazon Basin, thesoutheastern USA , east and west Africa.
• Acrisols characteristics Acrisols• accumulation of stable, low activity clays(< 24 cmolc kg-1 clay) in an argic subsurfacehorizon• low base saturation level (< 50%)• Acrisols correlate with– Red-Yellow Podzolic soils (e.g. Indonesia),– Podzolicos vermelho-amarello distroficos aargila de atividade baixa (Brazil),– Sols ferralitiques fortement oumoyennement désaturés (France),– Red and Yellow Earths– with several subgroups of Alfisols andUltisols (Soil Taxonomy, USA).
• Alisols genesis Alisol genesis in three steps1. transformation and/or hydrolysis of primary minerals,moderate leaching of Si→ saprolith, high in secondary high-activity clay2. redistribution of clay (vertically or laterally or clay weatheringin topsoil)→ accumulation in argic B3. weathering of secondary high-activity clayNote High-activity clays are unstable when soil is depleted of Si, alkalineand alkaline earth cations. Their weathering liberates soluble Al On basic parent materials also deliberation of Fe and Mg frominner layers of (2:1) clay minerals. Fe oxides account for the reddish colour of some Alisols, e.g. theRhodic Alisols of the Caribbean region
• Acrisols genesis Genesis and properties of AcrisolsClay illuviation (formation of an argic B)Ferralitization: accumulation of sesquioxides in the soil profile as aresult of advanced hydrolysis of weatherable primary minerals• little weatherable minerals left• content of Fe-, Al- and Ti-Oxides ≈ in Ferralsols or lower• SiO2/Al2O3 ≤ 2• clay fraction consists almost entirely of kaolinite and gibbsiteCheluviation and Chilluviation: subsequent redistribution of Fecompounds→ colour differentiation directly under the A(h)-horizon• eluviation horizon with yellowish colours overlies a• more reddish coloured Bst-horizon (hence the name `Red-YellowPodzolics' as used e.g. in southeast Asia).o intensively weathered: acid, poor in bases, low CEC, high in kaoliniteo P and K deficiency, P sorptiono Al toxicity, Mn toxicity in moist periodso unfavorable structure in the A: crust formation after forest clearing high risk of soil erosion water saturation in low positionso massive macrostructure in sesquioxide-poor horizons
• Acrisols use Acrisol use and management• High risk of Al toxicity–Preservation of surface soil with organicmatter–Avoid exposing subsoil to the surfaceAcrisol (Ruanda), www.bildarchiv-boden.de• Sedentary farming requirescomplete fertilization and liming• rotation of arable and pasture use• acidity-tolerant cash-crops(pineapple, cashew, rubber, oilpalm• Slash-and-burn (shifting cultivation)well adapted– short arable use, longrecreation period
• Lixisols Lixisols• in seasonally dry tropical, subtropical and warm temperateregions• on Pleistocene and older surfaces.• about 435 million hectares,• Sub-Sahelian and East Africa, South and Central America, on theIndian subcontinent and in southeast Asia and Australia.– As Lixisols are a recent introduction in soil classification, their totalextent is not accurately known.– Elsewhere classification as, e.g. “Red-Yellow Podzolic Soils, SolsFerrugineux Tropicaux Lessivés, Latosols or Alfisols”
• Lxisols character Lixisols• strongly weathered soils• clay migration from eluvial toargic horizon• low cation exchange capacity(“low activity clays”)• absence of Al toxicity• moderate to high basesaturation (>50%)• „tropical counterpart“ of theLuvisols
• Lixisols developemt Lixisols• Many Lixisols started their development under awetter climate than the present• Early stages of soil formation: strong weathering• Fossil plinthite and/or coarse reddish mottles orindurate iron nodules in the subsurface soil ofmany Lixisols also hint at wetter conditions in thepast.• Recently, i.e. after the climate had changedtowards an annual evaporation surplus:chemical enrichment by Base-rich aeolian deposits or biological activity (import of bases from the deepersubsoil) or lateral seepage of water.• Reddish or yellow colours of many Lixisols(notably in argic horizons) are the result of`rubefaction' brought about by dehydration ofiron compounds in long dry seasons.
• Lixisols manageent Savannah, open woodland: grazing• preserve surface with OM– low aggregate stability: erosion, slaking, compaction– terracing, contour ploughing, mulching, cover crops• prefer perennial over annual crops• cotton, yams• tuber crops or groundnut critical with respect to soilerosion
• Nitisols • approx. 200 million hectares• Most Nitisols are found in tropical Africa, notably in the highlands(>1000 m) of Ethiopia, Kenya, Congo and Cameroon• Elsewhere, Nitisols are well represented at lower altitudes, e.g. intropical Asia, South America, Central America and Australia
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• Nitisols formation Nitisol formation processes• Ferralitization– intensive hydrolysis of weathering minerals combined withleaching of silica and bases, and relative accumulation of(meta)halloysite, kaolinite and sesquioxides. (As in Ferralsolsbut still in an early stage)• Nitidization– formation of strongly angular, shiny peds in the niticsubsurface horizon. Probably the result of alternating microswellingand shrinking and produces well-defined structuralelements with strong, shiny pressure faces.• Homogenization– of the soil by termites, ants, worms and other soil fauna(`biological pedoturbation'). Particularly in the top 100-cm soillayer where it results in a crumb and/or subangular blocky soilstructure and gradual or diffuse soil horizon boundaries.
• NItiols use management Management and Use of Nitisols• among the most productive soils of the humid tropics• Deep and porous solum• Stable soil structure: deep rooting, quite resistant to erosiono Good workability of Nitisols (but hard when dry)o Moderate to good internal drainageo Fair water holding properties (5-15% WHC)o Chemical (fertility) properties favorably to those of most othertropical soils Plantation crops such as cocoa, coffee, rubber and pineapple Widely used for food crop production on smallholdings High P-sorption: P-fertilizer application demanded P usually provided as slow release, low-grade `rock phosphate' (severaltons/ha with maintenance doses every few years) in combination with smallerapplications of better soluble `super phosphate' for short-term response bythe crop.
• Humid temperate regions Humid temperate regions•PODZOLS, acid, with a bleached eluviation horizon over an accumulationhorizon of organic matter with aluminium and/or iron•ALBELUVISOLS, base-poor, with a bleached eluviation horizon tonguinginto a clay-enriched subsurface horizon• LUVISOLS, base-rich, with a distinct clay accumulation horizon•PLANOSOLS with a bleached topsoil over dense, slowly permeable subsoil→ Lecture „Stagnosols“
• Wet tropical and subtropical regions (long history of dissolution and transport) Wet tropical and subtropical regions (long history of dissolution and transport)• ALISOLSwith high cation exchange capacity and much exchangeable aluminium• ACRISOLS, strongly leached, red and yellow, on acid parent rock, with a clayaccumulation horizon, low cation exchange capacity and low base saturation• LIXISOLS with a low cation exchange capacity but high base saturationpercentage• NITISOLS, deep, in relatively rich parent material and marked by shiny, nuttystructure elements• PLINTHOSOLS on old weathering surfaces; these soils are marked by thepresence of a mixture of clay and quartz (‘plinthite’) that hardens irreversiblyupon exposure to the open air• FERRALSOLS, deeply weathered, that have a very low cation exchange capacityand are virtually devoid of weatherable minerals

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