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Social and Cross-Cultural Psy (Subject) / Chapter 10 (Lesson)
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- empathy the experience of understanding or sharing the emotional state of another person
- helping behaviour actions that are intended to provide some benefit to or improve the well-being of others
- prosocial behaviour defined by society as beneficial to other people; it excludes behaviour motivated by professional obligations; it may be driven by more selfish (egoistic) and/or more selfless (altruistic) motivations
- altruism refers to behaviour carried out to benefit others without anticipation of external rewards; it is driven by exclusively empathic motivation
- empathic concern an emotional state consisting of emotions such as compassion, warmth and concern for another person
- negative-state-relief model argues that human beings have an innate drive to reduce their own negative moods. Helping behaviour can elevate mood - thus people help for egoistic rather than altruistic reasons
- diffusion of responsibility the process by which responsibility is divided between bystanders; with more people present in an emergency, respnsibility is diffused and bystanders feel less responsible than if they were alone
- pluralistic ignorance emergency bystanders look to others in reacting to the event; as each person fails to react, they look at non-reacting bystanders, and interpret the event as not requiring a response
- audience inhibition the experience of individual bystanders whose behaviour can be seen by other bystanders. In an emergency bystanders may fear embarrassment by their actions, resulting in lower likelihood of them helping
- bystander effect refers to the phenomenon whereby the likelihood of any one person helping in an emergency situation decreases as the number of other bystanders increases
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- arousal: cost-reward model suggests that observing an emergency creates a sense of arousal in the bystander which becomes increasingly unpleasant. Bystander responds by considering costs and rewards of helping or not helping
- impulsive helping immediate, non-deliberate form of helping that does not appear to involve a conscious decision-making process, and in which the helper does not attend to the presence of other bystanders
- common ingroup identity model this model seeks to reduce bias between groups by changing the nature of categorization from ingroups versus outgroups to a single, more inclusive identity. The model harnesses the forces of ingroup favouritism to reduce bias and promote helping.
- volunteerism when individuals give time and effort willingly without expecting rewards
- prosocial personality an enduring tendency to think about the rights and welfare of others, to feel concern and empathy, and to act in a way that benefits from them
- coefficient of relatedness between two individuals can be calculated by knowing how many steps removed individuals are from a common ancestor (e.g. coefficients of relatedness between children-parents and grandchildren-grandparents are .5 and .25, respectively)
- kin selection (also known as inclusive fitness theory) proposes that we have evolved to favour people who are genetically related to us, and are more likely to help close relatives (kin) than strangers
- proportion of shared genes refers to the amount of genetic material shared by humans (and animals); humans have an almost identical proportion of shared genes with any randomly selected other human being
- reciprocal altruism a theory designed to explain altruism towards strangers by proposing that helping non-kin may have evolved if the cost of helping another is offset by the likelihood of the return benefit
- public goods game participants are allocated tokens, and can then (secretly) decide how many to keep and how many to contribute to a public pot; contributing nothing is termed free riding
- strong reciprocity a human predisposition to cooperate with others and to punish those who defect, even when this behaviour cannot be justified in terms of self-interest, extended kinship or reciprocal altruism