Kreyer (Fach) / Session 9 (Lektion)

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• Presuppositions in advertisement “let them do the math” – infer something and they believe itWe take information for granted because facts make our life easier. We can not question presuppositions.  How do we memorize things/store information?- Verbatim representation (~10 minutes)- Propositional network (smallest unit of meaningful information)- Active process (enriched with our world knowledge) → Whenever we hear something, we are not passive listeners
• Define and describe two different versions of inferencing Entailment: Logical relation between propositions (Semantics) - Example: "If you plagiarize, I will fail you" --> (A): If you plagiarize, (B) I will fail you. So, B will happen if A happens. B entails A. But it is not true that you will NOT fail as long as you do not plagiarize.  - Example:  Choosy mothers choose Jif (A) Choosy mothers(B) Choose Jif 1. (A) If you are a choosy mother (B) you choose Jif 2. (¬ B) If you don’t choose Jif (¬ A) you are not a choosy mother 3. Choosy mothers are good mothers (Active process – adding world knowledge) 4. If you don’t choose Jif You are not a good mother (Combination of ‘¬ B’ with 3.) → Entailment + theoretical implicature Presupposition: Between proposition and the language user (Pragmatics) 
• There are two types of implicature. Describe the conventional implicature. - The meaning is hidden in the words themselves (semantic) Examples: manage → includes the meaning of 'it was difficult' finally → includes the meaning that 'it was a long way to get there' - Comes close to entailment
• There are two kinds of implicatures Describe the conversational implicature (Greis' maxims of conversational behavior) - These maxims summarize our tacit "contract" when we participate in a conversation or other discourse situation - Speakers (generally) abide by these principles - Listeners accept them from the speaker - All of this happens on a subconscious level 1. Maxim of Quality (make your contribution a true one): - Do not say what you believe is false - Do not say something for which you lack adequate fact 2. Maxim of Relevance: - Be relevant 3. Maxim of Quantity: - Make your own contribution as informative as required, not more 4. Maxim of Manner (be perspicuous): - Avoid obscurity of expression - Avoid ambiguity - Be brief - Be orderly Violating the maxims: violating a maxim but the recipient is unaware Flouting the maxims: violating a maxim but making it obvious “The layout of your Hausarbeit was good” → Flouting (verspotten) leads to a conversational implicatory
• Presuppositions are part of pragmatics - Primary level of processing → Secondary level – presupposition - Presuppositions stay constant under negation: Example: The king of France is bald → There is a king of France and it doesn’t even matter if he is bald or not - We always focus on the important information in a message: - When we use a presupposition, we take what is said for granted and integrate it into our belief system ('under the radar'): Example: “I have a car” vs. “I took my car from the garage yesterday” I took: Dr. Kreyer has a car (Now part of our world knowledge) my car: not explicit, therefore taken for granted from the garage: demonstrative determiner makes garage not the focus
• The two utterances ‘This car is really value for money. You can afford it.’ and ‘You can afford this value-for-money car.’ have the same number of propositions. Right or wrong? Right
• Presuppositions provide Information that somehow seems to be taken for granted Information that is usually uncontroversial Shared information
• Language offers an appealing sampling of options when it comes to packaging information as presupposed. What are definite descriptions? (presupposition trigger) Definite descriptions are phrases like the suitcase in the trunk, the legendary quality of Stickley's, the battery etc. These phrases consist of the English definite article the, followed by some descriptive material, and the effect is to assume the existence of something fitting that description. Jonas searched, without success, for an honest politican. Jonas searched, without success, for the honest politican. Definite descriptions can also begin with other types of words, particularly possessives such as John's, his, mine, their etc. → „Larry's older sister“ → presupposition; Larry has an older sister
• Language offers an appealing sampling of options when it comes to packaging information as presupposed. What are factives? (presupposition trigger) Factives are a class of verbs that express someone's mental state towards a presupposed fact. Among these are verbs or phrases like regret, realize, is aware, was proud, think it strange, it's your fault that… etc. These expressions presuppose that the fact is already known to be true; „I used to think it was my fault that Windows didn't work properly.“ → Apple was cleverly signaling that the shortcomings of the Windows operating system were presupposed, common knowledge. There is a collection of verbs that communicate a change of state or a continuation of a state. In both cases, some existing state is considered to be part of the background knowledge. Hence the absurdity of an organization dedicated to „stopping illegal immigration from Mars,“ or my doctor advising me to „keep running five miles every day“.  
• Language offers an appealing sampling of options when it comes to packaging information as presupposed. What are iterative expressions? (trigger for presupposition) Iterative expressions like; again, return, anymore, another etc. → „I see you're having another drink“ Often found in ads, promising recovery of a lost youth, a past state. → „Bring back vibrancy“ „Feel young again“ When a clause is introduced by temporal expressions like before, after, during, or when, the events it describes are usually presupposed. → „While Bush was preventing further terrorist attacks, he let the economy slide.“ vs. „He prevented further terrorist attacks, but let the economoy slide.“ → 1st example the preventing of terrorist attacks is presupposed due to While
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• Language offers an appealing sampling of options when it comes to packaging information as presupposed. What are presupposition triggering syntactic constructions? Sometimes it's a certain grammatical structure, rather than a word or a phrase that triggers the presupposition. These syntactic structures often serve to put special focus on certain parts of the sentence, with the result that the remaining material is treated as background information. „It was Suzanna who ran off with your husband“ → can only be said to someone who already knows she's in martial trouble, and not out of the blue to break the bad news… Often glowing things about the advertised good are said in the form of a presupposition. (The presupposition-triggering structures are italized) Further examples: „Elbow Grease is overrated. That's why Brennet is soft, with the classic strength you expect.“ „The energy from algae might someday produce biofuels that are compatible with those made from conventional crude oil. That's why Exxon mobile is commited to a major long-term research and development program aimed at developling algae as a viable fuel source.“ „… how Slimquick appetite control works in 6 weeks to help women fight temptation“ „… how the superior comfort and unsurpassed support provided by our proprietary Tempure pressure-relieving material will help you fall asleep faster and wake up more refreshed.“ 
• Language offers an appealing sampling of options when it comes to packaging information as presupposed. What are leading questions? Just like statements that contain presuppositions, questions don't give you the opportunity to reject their presupposition either. In the same way that statements are partitioned into the asserted bits and the presupposed information, questions are too, and the question part only applies to the non-presupposed portion. (The presupposed part is, of course, already pressumed to be true)   Did you see the stop sign?
• Remembering an event In remembering an event, people can be quite vulnerable to outside influence and will often accept information that is presented to them in a suggestive way as if it were part of their original memory. Presuppositional language is often part and parcel of this suggestive packaging.   
• Is memory changeable? What can shape the memory? Memory is changeable. Presuppositions and leading questions can shape the memory. “Did you see a stop sign?” 6% said yes “Did you see the stop sign?” More than 12% said yes (there was no stop sign) → Because the question containing the presupposition the made it clear that the questioner took its presence for granted, they may have thought “Well I didnt see a stop sign, but because there obviously was one (the) I’ll go along and say I saw it.” [Weak version, since participants might have simply look smarter due to recognizing a the ] Misleading presuppositions in a leading question can influence memory!“Did another car pass the red Datsun [assertion] while it was stopped at the stop sign? [presupposition]” (it was a yield sign, not a stop sign!) Correct answers dropped from 70% to 43%. [strong versions because nobody realized getting fooled, they didn’t recognize the misleading information / presupposition / guiding question] 
• What is meant by accomodation? Process of updating information, that is unknown by the hearer but presupposed by the speaker - the hearer enters it into memory with a tag that says "shared information". 
• Can each memory be changed? When memories are truly clear and strong, or when the presupposition is outright preposterous (absurd) we do tend to challenge it. Family, peers and close friends can manipulate your memories and you are more likely to believe it due to the close relation and the trust you have in them. 
• How can adds influence memories? Imagining a memory is fuzzy and can be influenced. Ads for things that you have done or visited in the past (driving a porsche, visiting Disney Land, having eaten pizza in Venedig etc.) are likely to influence your memories or; “it may add some convincing (and sexy) flesh [false memories / additional but not own information] to your skeletal memories.” 
• Can social pressure alter memory / change perception ? Social pressure can lead individuals to perceive reality differntly. Pressure of conformity leads us there. The harder the questions the higher the conformity rates. (People are more likely to go with the majority / the “right”, though wrong, answer as 3+3 = 7)  Family, peers and close friends can manipulate your memories and you are more likely to believe it due to the close relation and the trust you have in them. 
• Can presuppositions define what is being normal? How? Presuppositions can define what is normal “Download to your iPhone or iTouch now!” “Personalize your home page. Stay connected to TIME’s influential bloggers.” → it’s normal to have high-end gadgets and be technologically savvy (smart) “This year, start getting five servings of vegetables every day.” → It’s normal to eat 5 a day. 
• How does "normal" descriptions change people's behaviour? What people think others are doing shapes their behavior! → Teachers in class saying “The behavior in this school is bad and I expect that to change” → Behavior is bad (normal) – students will act accordingly, bad (since its normal) → “Please don’t remove the petrified wood from the Park, in order to preserve the natural state of the petrified forest” → it’s normal to not take wood because that would destroy the forest → people do not take it because it would be against the norm → “90% of people in Minnesota are law-abiding citizens who pay their taxes in full” → normal behavior to pay taxes → non tax paying people might reflect and adapt to the normal behavior
• What are presuppositions? Presuppositions have a distinctly "backgrounded" nature.  - They are taken-for-granted assumptions - Presuppositions signal shared information  - Presupposed information presumes that the information is already known not just to the speaker but also to the hearer or "people" more generally  - Common knowledge - can not be denied - or, not directly 
• What are presuppositions? Presuppositions have a distinctly "backgrounded" nature.  - They are taken-for-granted assumptions - Presuppositions signal shared information  - Presuppositions are considered entirely uncontroversial  - Presupposed information presumes that the information is already known not just to the speaker but also to the hearer or "people" more generally  - Common knowledge - can not be denied - or, not directly 
• What is an assertion? Assertions are what we are given the opportunity to openly agree or disagree with in conversation
• How can you identify the asserted part of a sentence? You can easily locate the asserted part of an utterance by simply asking yourself the following: if you (mentally or verbally) respond to this assertion by asying "No" or "I do not agre" or "that's not true", which part are you disputing?
• Is every presupposed information known by everybody? Or even by the ones adressed? No.  But it can actually turn out to provide a lot of information about what the speaker thinks the hearer knows. 

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