Morphology (Fach) / Pham (Lektion)

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• Def. Morphology the scientific study of the form of words, their internal structure and theircomposition to form larger units
• Morpheme + Example nationalization, teachers Smallest meaningful unit of languages {nation}+{-al}+{ize}+{-ation} {teach} + {-er} + {-s}
• Morphemklassifikation ...
• Portmanteumorphem Morpheme which contains two or more morphemes, but cannot be analysedinto separate formal constituents e.g. {take}+{-ed}
• Cranberrymorpheme Lexical bound morpheme, which occurs in only one word-formationexamples: {cran-} in cranberry, {huckle-} in huckleberry, {Mon-} in Monday
• Zero-Morpheme morpheme that carries meaning, but is invisible on the surfacee.g.: {bottle} + {Ø} > to bottle, {fish} + {-s}, /Ø/ > (two) fish
• allomorph one of several concrete, phonological realizations of a morpheme→ notation: / /
• Allomorph: Principles of distribution free variation: The choice of allomorph does not follow any specific rules. phonological conditioning: The choice of allomorph depends on phonetic factores, e.g. the final / initial sound of the stem. morphological conditioning (also: lexical / grammatical conditioning): The choice of the allomorph depends on an entire morpheme. suppletion: Forms resulting from the combination of morphemes do not resemble the root morpheme and are etymologically unrelated to it.
• root Basic part in a lexeme not further analysable, neither in terms of derivational nor inflectional morphology e.g. untouchables root = touch
• stem Part of the word-form which remains when all inflections and the last affix (that has been added) are subtracted. e.g. untouchables stem = untouchable
• Affixation An affix is a bound morpheme that is joined before, after, or within a root or stem.Prefix: e.g. {un -} in ‘unhappy’ or {dis-} in ‘dislike’Suffix: e.g. {-–able} in ‘eatable’ or {–-ness} in ‘completeness’
• Prefixation Typical prefixations are combinations of lexical free morphemes (bases) with preceding lexical bound morphemes (prefixes).
• Prefixation > Characteristics - Prefixes typically modify the bases- The bases can be verbal, adjectival or nominal- Prefixes typically do not change the word class of the base.o Exceptions: {en-} (slave > to enslave), {be-} (head > to behead), {a-} (sleep > asleep)
• Classification of prefixes According to…- the word class of the base,- the word class of the resulting prefixation and- the meaning of the prefix.e.g.: moral (Adj.) + {a-} ‘not’ > amoral (Adj.)
• Classification of prefixes> EXAMPLES Neg. prefixes: {anti-}hero,{in-}active,{non-]profit Degree or size: {mini-}market,{over-}dressed,{hyper-}active Orientation and Attitue: {pro-}American, {anti-}social Locative: {fore}ground, {inter}national, {sub}way Time and order: {ex-}president, {post-}war, {pre-}school Number: {uni}sex, {bi}cycle,
• Suffixation Suffixation is one of two major types of derivational processes (suffixation and prefixation). In suffixation a suffix such is added to the word-base.
• Characteristics of Suffixation The lexemes formed by suffixation differ from their base grammatically (with respect to word-class membership) & phonologically.Most of the time more happens than the mere formation of new lexemes, which differ in their meaning from the base.The Change of the whole word-class can be triggered by suffixation.
• Suffixation Classification According to:--> word class of base--> changes in pronunciation and accentuation(accent-neutral/ -attracting/ -fixing suffixes)--> correlative derivation (suffixation without a change in word-class e.g. candidate - candidacy)
• Suffixes Examples {-ity}electricity, {-ish] boyish, {ize}womanize, {-ate}activate, {-er}employer, {-less}hopeless, without word-class change: {-ian} musician, {-hood}child-hood,{-al}historical
• Changes in pronunciation 1. Accent-neutral No affect on accentual patterns of stems Primary accent remains in stem All inflectional morphemes and many common derivational suffixes E.g. `difficult > `difficulty2. Accent-attracting: some common derivational suffixes Primary accent on the first element to be written as one word Or on the final element written as two words E.g. em`ploy > employ`ee3. Accent-fixing Fixing the accent on a particular syllable of the steam On final syllable of stem > `definite, defi`nition Penultimate syllable > `infant, in`fanticite Varying between the two above possibilities > in`testine, intes`tinal
• Inflectional (grammatical bound) morphemes:  comperative {-er} > nicer superlative {-est} > nicest third person singular {-s} > he/she/it goes plural {-s} > trees, cats genitive {-s} > women‘s, children‘s past participle & past tense {-ed} > liked present participle {-ing} > dancing ordinal numb. {-th} > fourth
• Compounding Def. forming of a new lexical item by combining two already existing words
• head or determinatum Def. second part of compound, determines word class and semanticproperties
• modifier or determinant limits the head or determinatume.g. blackboard, black is the determinant board is the determinatum
• 3 forms of compounds closed (words written together), hyphenated (separated by a hyphen), open (written in two words)
• word-classes >examples noun compound: e.g. blackboard, bus stop, fire-fly, football adjective compound: e.g. bittersweet, blackboard, software verb compound: e.g. to blackmail, breakfast, swimming pool, washing machine
• 3 Different kinds of noun compounds endocentric compound: same linguistic functions as the head, two kind: 1. descriptive compound: serving or seeking to describe e.g. blackboard2. determinative compound: serving to define, qualify or direct e.g. armchair  exocentric compound (also bahuvrihi compound): does not have a head or determinatum e.g. turn-cloak, skinhead, paleface copulative compound: has two heads with equal semantic importance e.g. singer-songwriter, bittersweet, sleepwalk
• Phonology: Compounds vs. syntactic groups in a compound the main stress usually is on the first constituent (C1), whereas in a syntacticgroup the main stress usually is on the second word i.e. the head of the phrasee.g. compound ´White ,House vs. syntactic group ,white ´houseExceptions:◦ (a) when the paraphrase is: 'C2 is made of C1', e.g. ,apple´pie, ,stone´wall◦ (b) when C1 is a proper name e.g. ,Molotow´cocktail, ,London´road◦ (c) when C1 is a value e.g. ,dollar´bill
• Determinative compounds the determinant specifies or modifies the meaning of the determinatum the adjective compound can be rephrased with a prepositional phrase or a comparison: Example:boy-crazy → 'crazy for boys'silky-soft → 'as soft as silk' or 'soft like silk'
• Bahuvrihi compound neither the determinatum nor the determinant can wholly describe the meaning of a compound both words either refer to a person or another object Example:good-looking → 'someone who looks good'strong-smelling → 'something that smells strong'
• copulative compound  both constituencies of the adjective compound are of equal weight most of them refer to things that deal with taste or emotionsExample:deaf-mute → 'someone is deaf and mute at the same time'
• Stress patterns-adj. compounds  determinative compounds: primary stress on the first constituent, secondary stress on the secondconstituent, e.g. 'footlˌloose, 'breathˌtaking copulative compounds: level stress or primary stress on the second constituent, e.g. ˌgrey-'green exceptions: determinative compounds in which the first constituent expresses a comparison,e.g. ˌstone-'deaf, ˌknee-'deep determinative compounds in which the first constituent expresses a manner, e.g. ˌgood-'looking,ˌbad-'tempered
• verb compounds Def. Definition (Plag 2003: 154/155) verb compounds have a verb as their determinatum or function as verbs can have nouns, adjective and verbs as determinantExamples:(to) chain-smoke(to) blindfold(to) dry-clean however most verb compounds are a result of back formation from noun-noun compoundseither ending with {-er} or {-ing}Examples:ghost-writer → (to) ghostwriteproof-reading → (to) proof-read other verb compounds are back formations or zero-derivation of adjective-verb compounds
• Neo-classical compounds content words of Greek or Latin origin are combined to form a new word the new combinations do not occur in the original language Examples:biochemical, histological, telephoned, photograpic, homogeneous... these types of words are not easy to classify but they are not the result of affixation
• Conversion/ Zero-Derivation: Four basic categories (Change of word-class) (Noun > Verb) the bottle > to bottle , the water > to water , the mail > to mail(Verb > Noun) to call > a call , to guess > a guess , to command > a command(Adjective > Verb) better > to better , open > to open , dirty > to dirty , empty > to empty(Adjective > Noun) poor > the poor , gay > the gay , regular > a regular , blind > the blind
• backformation Def. + examples • process of deleting morphemes or morpheme-like units at end of base-lexemes• suffix gets split from lexeme  actor – (to) act, therefore: editor – (to) edit building – (to) build, therefore: sightseeing – (to) sightsee revision – (to) revise, therefore: television – (to) televise scary – (to) scare, therefore: lazy – (to) laze
• Types of reduplication Full Reduplication  so-called ‚unchanged‘ repetitione.g. hush-hush some: intensification of a single word with stress on each elemente.g. no, no Ablaut Reduplication  appear with a different vowele.g. sing-song; hip-hop Rhyme Reduplication  appear with a different consonant nothing is changed apart from thate.g. boogie-woogie
• Def. Blending Blends are “words that combine two (rarely more) words into one • the first part of the first element (AB) is combined with the second part of the second element CD Blending rule  A + D Examples: brunch (breakfast + lunch), smog (smoke + fog), chunnel (channel + tunnel)
• Def. Clipping + Classification: back, fore- and middle clipping The term clipping refers to the “process whereby a lexeme […] is shortened, while still retaining the same meaning and still being a member of the same word class” Back-clipping: the beginning of the base lexeme is retained (most common type) e.g.: bi (bisexual), jumbo (jumbo jet), mike (microphone) Fore-clipping: the final part of the base lexeme is retained e.g.: loid (celluloid), phone (telephone), bus (omnibus) Middle-clipping: the middle of the word is retained, but both ends are clipped (much rarer type) e.g.: jams (pyjamas), fridge (refrigerator)
• Acronymy An acronym is “a word coined by taking the initial letters of the words in a title or phrase and using them as a new word” 1. Written form: - unseparated capital letters (BBC, UK)- capital letters separated by full stops (M.O.T.)- one capital at the beginning followed by small letters (Nato)2. Pronunciation(cf. Plag 2003: 127):- Initialisms or alphabetisms: pronounced as a series of individual letters (BBC, UK, TV)- Acronyms proper: pronounced like a normal word (AIDS, Nato, WASP)
• compounds vs. syntactic groups Compounds: a blackbird • main stress on the first constituenta `blackbird• no interpolationa black nice bird• premodification with an adjective affects the compounda wonderful blackbird• idiomatic meaningcan appear > one idea• No substitution by one Syntactic groups: a black bird• stress on both constituents possiblea (`)black `bird• interpolationa black nice bird• premodification with an adjective affects just the nouna wonderful black bird• no idiomatic meaningderivation from the meanings of the constituents > combined ideas• Substitution by one“I thought it was a black bird, but she said it was a brown one”
• Pseudo-affixes o Sometimes, words with prefixiations are pseudo-affixes e.g.adjectives with a (mostly Latin or Greek) prefix of prepositional meaning like {anti-}, {inter-} or {post-} plus a noun-stem plus a suffix like {-al,-an,-ar} as you can see in antitraditional,intercontinental
• Lexicalization Def. - new object or construct which needs a name > e.g. television, liquidizer- gain an effect: e.g. dontopedology `putting one’s foot in one’s mouth´ > humorous effect because it is a scientific- sounding label for something rather trivial- save space: e.g. press freedom instead of freedom of the press- speaker cannot remember the usual lexeme used for the required concept: e.g. equalitarian instead of egalitarian

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