Englisch (Fach) / Steop Introduction To English Linguistics (Lektion)
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linguistics
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- Semantic roles Experiencer Experiencer: entity experiencing / undergoing effect of an action The boy feels sad. ExperiencerDid you hear the noise? Experiencer Theme
- Semantic roles –Instrument,Location Instrument: entity used to carry out an action Location: place at which entity action is located In her room, Anna squashes the bug with the magazine. Location Agent Theme Instrument
- Semantic roles –Source, Goal Source: starting point for a movement Goal: end point for a movement George travelled from Vienna to London. Agent Source Goal
- Semantic roles -Overview Agent: entity performing an actionTheme: entity undergoing action or movement, entity described Experiencer: entity experiencing / undergoing effect of an action Instrument: entity used to carry out an action Location: place at which entity/action is located Source: starting point for a movement Goal: end point for a movement
- Paraphrase two sentences have the same proposition John opened the door. The door was opened by John.
- Contradiction if one sentence is true, the other one is false Mary is an only child. Mary has a brother.
- Entailment the truth of one sentence necessarily entails that of the other Cats meow. My cat meows
- Presupposition If A is true, then B is implicitly assumed to be true My car is a wreck. I have a car.
- Grammar In linguistics: • used interchangeable with ‘syntax’ • “the complete system of phonological, morphological , syntactic and semantic information and rules that speakers of a given language possess” In everyday language: • a book containing a description of the system of rules referred by linguists as ‘grammar’ • A sentence must not be ended with a preposition.He wondered from where she had come. NOT: He wondered where she had come from.• Use subject pronouns after the verb be. It was I who called you. NOT: It was me who called you. • Do not start a sentence with ‘and‘ or ‘but‘
- Prescriptive grammar • what speakers should or shouldn’t say • “grammatical rules” • mold your spoken and written language to some norm
- Descriptive grammar • what speakers actually do• grammar consists of those constructions judged acceptable by native speakers’ intuition • “what speakers say , and when, why and how they say it (not whether they should or shouldn’t say it)” • Linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive!
- Traditional grammar • Identifying elements – words, phrases, clauses – constituents • Ordering of elements – within the word – within the phrase – within the clause • Different levels – hierarchy – recursitivity– ambiguity
- Theoretical grammar • goes beyond the study of individual languages • linguistic universals in every language • focuses attention on similarities and differences of languages • explains the nature of linguistic diversity
- Word classes Parts of speech (word classes, syntactic categories): • noun: table, coffee, accident, Nina, love• verb: pray, be, say, dance, love• adjective: pretty, rich, English, alive• adverb: unfortunately, hardly, daily• preposition: of, about, on, to, into• determiner: the/a(n), that/this, my/your/our• conjunctions: and, or, because, that, if, since• pronouns: I, you, he/she/it, we, they; mine
- word classes II Combination of 3 criteria:• Semantic criteria (= meaning) • Morphological criteria (= shape of word) • Syntactic criteria (= position in sentence)
- Semantic criteria • generalization about the kind of meaning that words convey• Nouns denote persons and (concrete and abstract) objects, e.g. runner, table, war • Verbs denote actions and states, e.g. drink, jump, live, know • Adjectives denote (concrete or abstract) qualities (of persons or objects), e.g. alive, red, funny, real
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- Semantic criteria • Prepositions denote places (in, on), time (after,during, while) and other relations (with, for) • Adverbs denote manner (quickly), possibility (probably), frequency (often), attitude (luckily),degree (very) e.g. drink, jump, live, know • Determiners denote ??? • Conjunctions denote ??? • Nouns can also denote events (accident, explosion) • Nouns can also denote qualities (intelligence, wisdom) • Nouns and pronouns can also denote places (inside, broder; here, there) or times (today, now) • Adjectives can also denote possibility (possible, probable) • Many words can denote more than one thing: love (N, V), clean (V, A), professional (A, N), fast (Adj, Adv), near (P, A, V)
- Morphological criteria • some words can be assigned to a word class on the basis of their shape or form • Nouns: inflection (plural ending); derivational suffixes (e.g. –er, -ment, -tion, -ness) • Verbs: inflectional (3rd person plural); derivational affixes (e.g. re-, dis-, -fy, -en) • Adjectives: inflectional (comparative/superlative endings); derivational affixes (e.g. un-, -al, -ful, -less, -able) • Adverbs: -ly, -wise • Prepositions, Determiners, Conjunctions: ??? Problems: • may be misleading: – goodly (A), friendly (A), interesting (A), building (N) • one ending may productively occur with different word classes: – -s: builds (V-s), names (N-s), walks (V-s or N-s) – -er: winner (N-er), stronger (A-er) • even productive morphemes do not apply to all members of the class: – mass nouns: no plural forms (*milk-s, *information-s) – verbs denoting a permanent state: no progressive forms (*I am know-ing this)
- Clauses A clause ... is a syntactic unit above the phrase level. It contains (at least) a subject and a predicate(typically a verb) One clause can be a sentence. A sentence consists of more than one clause.
- Main clauses • can be used independently• are always finite (expressing tense) Finite • expresses tenseJohn thought that she believed the story. I don‘t know if she is happy. E.g. Sue opened the door and the cat entered the house.
- Subordinate clauses • can only be used in combination with a main clause• can be finite or non-finite • when a subclause is non-finite, they need to have a subject Finite • expresses tenseJohn thought that she believed the story. I don‘t know if she is happy. Non-finite: We made David play the piano. (Infinitive) Written in 1864, the book soon became a classic. (Past participle) Leaving home can be very traumatic. (Present participle) E.g. Sue saw that the cat entered the house. Sue saw the cat entering the house.