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• Social Cleavages Lipset/Rokkan 1967   -european party systems remarkabbly stable during most of the 20th century -parties dominating elections in the 1960s were the same as those in the 20s -freezing hypothesis: west european party systems became frozen following the expansion of universal suffrage in most countries during the 1920s
• Lipset/Rokkan's cleavages (4) urban vs. rural church vs. state center vs. periphery bourgeoisie - workers
• New cleavages (challenges to Lipset/Rokkan)? post-material cleavage ethnic/linguistic cleavage
• Electoral Rules: Duverger's Law 1. The plurality single ballot rule tends to party dualism (sociological law) 2. the double-ballot system and proportional representation tend to multipartism
• The mechanical effect of electoral rules refers to the way votes are translated into seats   when electoral systems are disproportional, the mechanical effect punishes small parties and reward large parties.
• the psychological (or strategic) effect of electoral rules refers to how the way in which votes are translated into seats influences the "strategic" behavior of voters and political elites. Strategic voting strategic entry
• Exceptions to Duverger's Law India/Canada law works, except when strong local minority parties exist
• Sources of Party System Social Cleavage + Electoral Rule = Party System (size)

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