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• separation of powers (Montesquieu) (3) -how to control arbitrary power -power abuse can be moderated by the constitution of the government and by the laws -power needs to be "checked" for democracy to work - thus separated by function (legislative, executive, judicial)  
• separation of power (Madison) (3) -separation between legsilative, executive and judicial branches of government in the US constitution -system of checks and balances to avoid tyranny (distinct powers for each branch) -such arrangements should be difficult to amend
• Distribution of government power CONSTITUTION Legislative power lower house/parliament upper house/senate Executive power Government President Judicial constitutional court
• Constitutions (5) -contain the principles according to which countries are to be governed -can be written or not -codify laws -have supremacy over ordinary laws -establish how power is organized and limited concentrated/dispersed (unitary/federal, parliamentary/presidential)
• Legislative Assemblies (3) -an elected or otherwise selected body of people vested with the responsibility and power to make laws for a given political unit (national or subnational) -can also be called assembly, parliament or congress -legislative power can be embodied in one or two chambers (lower/upper house)
• core roles of legislative power (3) -representing citizens/linking citizens and government -oversight -policy making
• Representing citizens/linking citizens and government (4) -serve as an "intermediary between the constituency and the central government" (Olson, 1980). -represent constituents, either as delegates, or trustees -public forum of debate -legitimation; ability to provide legitimacy to political system as a whole
• Oversight (3) -control of the government more limited scope in presidential regimes strong in parliamentary regimes -policy oversight question-time special inquiries and hearings investigative committees reports on issues -budgetary control
• Involvement in Policy-Making (5) -consultation -delay -veto -amendment -initation of policy
• How legislatures are organized: number of chambers and types -unicameral -bicameral (lower and upper chambers) symmetric bicameral: power equally shared/divided between both asymmetric bicameral: power unequally distributed between both  
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• types of executives -government/cabinet - parliamentary system -president - presidental system -dual (government and president) - semi-presidential system
• executives in parliamentary systems (6) executive emerges from the legislature, and is an integral part of the legislature (fusion) leader of largest party in legislature (usually) forms the government executive body is formed by a prime minister and a cabinet of ministers members of the cabinet get an area of responsibility (ministerial responsibility) members of the cabinet are bound by collective cabinet responsibility government is dependent of support of legislature (responsibility)
• Government responsibility -governments are said to be responsible to the elected legislature when a legislative majority has the constitutional power to remove the government from office without cause. -vote of no confidence/confidence: vote over wheter a government should remain in office -if a majority of legislators vote against the government it must resign -sometimes means that new elections are called -main feature of parliamentary governments -most rigorous instrument of political control
• Types of governments 1. majority governments: where government contain enough parties that they explicitly control a majority of seats (50+1 seats in the legislature). 2. minority government: one in which the party or parties in power do not together command a majority of legislative seats (less than 50% of seats in the legislature)
• Majority government types (4) -single party majority -minimal winning coalition (contains the minimum number of parties which can secure a parliamentary majority. -surplus majority coalition ("oversized): contains more parties than the minimum winning coalition -grand coalition: formed by the two largest parties (usually from the left and the right) which together command a substantial majority of seats
• Minority government types single party minority: government composed of a single political party which does not hold a majority of seats minority coalition

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